Table of Contents

A great many studies by Bulgarian botanists were published during the last decade. A brief sur· vey of their subjects and main results is provided, together with a full bibliography. Apart from providing new data on chromosome numbers and karyograms relating to Bulgarian plant material, many of these studi es uncover basic mechanisms and patterns of chromosomal evo· lution in the investigated groups. Polyploidy, dysploidy and aneuploidy are a frequent corol· lary of evolutionary processes in various species and species groups of the Bulgarian flora.

The present review retraces botanical studies in the field of floristics, taxonomy and phytogeography in Bulgaria during the last decade. It is based on the analysis of 75 publications (floras, plant guides, artic1es, scientific communications and literature reviews) published during the period 1983-1993, and considers recent trends in the floristic research in Bulgaria, acknowledging its close relation with the Flora europaea project and with major regional FLora projects. Newly described taxa (species, subspecies, and hybrids) of vascular plants are surveyed and listed in tabular form, as are taxa first recorded for the country during the last decade. Patterns in the dynamics of the country's flora are highlighted, and future prospects and ideas to further study the country's vascular flora are mentioned.

Floristic and phytogeographical research on the flora of Serbia has been very intense during the past twelve years. As a precursor to a planned, full bibliographical analysis, a synopsis of taxa described and named as new to science (6 species, 5 varieties, 18 formae) is here presented, followed by notes on selected cases in which new research has resulted in a taxonomic reappraisal of criticaI or neglected taxa.

Rohlena's Conspectus florae montenegrinae of 1942 covers only the flora of the pre-1913 territory of Cma Gora, i.e., it excludes the north-eastem and Dalmatian portions of the country. Il is therefore necessary to supp1ement il accordingly by the inclusion of c 500 additional species and c. 200 infraspecific taxa.

The southemmost occurrences in Greece of selected vascular plant species associated with woodlands of beech, fir and spruce in C. and N. Europe are discussed. Preliminary maps of the Greek distribution are given for Aegopodium podagraria, Allium ursinum, Corallorhiza trifida, Galium odoratum, Lamium galeobdolon, Luzula luzuloides, L. sylvatica, Milium effusum, Orthilia secunda, Paris quadrifolia, Prenanthes purpurea, and Salvia glutinosa.

The distribution of 1350 vaseular orophytes of the W. & Centrai Balkans was analysed. Eaeh speeies is attributed to one of the three basie ehorologieal groups (Eurasian, Centrai S. European to W. Asian, and Centrai S. European) and eight subgroups, on the basis of its distribution or, in the ease of endemie s, of the distribution of its c10sest relative. The analysis of the total orophytie flora (exeluding the aretie-alpine and boreal speeies) results in the establishment of the boundary between alpine-high-nordie and oromediterranean floristie regions, and of transitional zones between them, in the mountains of the W. & Centrai Balkans.

Strietly aretie-alpine speeies are rare in Greeee, and generally restrieted to some of the highest mountain tops in the north, e.g. Varnous, Voras, Timfi, Olimbos, Gramos and Smolikas. Several have their southernmost oeeurrenees on non-ealcareous mountains in north centrai Greeee, others in the Rodhopi mountains. Many Centrai European forest speeies extend to the northern Pindhos, N. Centrai and N.E. Greeee, fewer to the high mountains of Sterea Ellas or northern Peloponnisos, and praetically none to Crete. Anatolian eonneetions follow either a northern route (via Thraki) or a southern route (the S. Aegean island are); the former speeies tend to be assoeiated with moist, non-ealcareous habitats, the latter are more often plants of dry ealcareous roeks. The Italian element is most prominently represented in north-western Greeee. Regional and loeal endemism inereases in a southerly direetion, eulminating in the White Mountains of western Crete. Edaphie endemism is eonspieuous in the serpenti ne areas that extend from north-western Greeee to Albania. Loeal and regional endemies tend to be diploid (frequeney ofpolyploidy 10-15 %); widespread Centrai European or boreal speeies have mueh higher rates of polyploidy (42-48 %).

Various evolutionary pathways involving hybridity are discussed, with examples taken from Viola sect. Melanium. Karyotype analysis will often enable reconstruction of parentage of hybridogenous polyploids. The study of hybrid populations shows that hybridity, including backcrosses, is a frequent phenomenon, and that mechanisms exist to baI ance karyotypes with uneven numbers of chromosomes, thus circumventing sterility. Karyotypes in this group have often evolved by (mostly descending) aneuploidy from a postulated originaI basis of x = 11 chromosomes, leading down to the level x = 2 (first reported here) which equals the lowermost number known so far in plants.

The Sedum acre group comprises the small, herbaceous, perennial and annual, yellow-flowered, Eurasian Sedum species, except for S. assyriacum and S. nanum from the Near East, and the North African species of S. sect. Monanthella; in total, 16 species belonging to four comparia, or series:. S. ser. Acria, ser. Alpestria, ser. Litorea, and ser. Samia. Recent phytochemical and molecular studies indicate that the S. acre group is probably paraphyletic, though il belongs to a distinct and doubtless monophyletic lineage of the Sedoideae, the so-called S. acre lineage. -A cladistic analysis of 62 morphological characters of the 16 species of the group is presented. The significance of the resulting phylogeny is discussed in relation to cytological and phytochemical data and the distribution of the taxa.

The concepts biodiversity and biosubsistence are discussed. The significance of patterns and structures that enable organisms to survive in nature is illustrated by examples, and the importance of such knowledge for the purpose of conserving endangered species is pointed out.

More than 700 species of the Bulgarian vascular flora belong to the threatened or rare category, and 330 are protected by law. A classification according to 9 main criteria is presented, which shows that herbaceous perennials, cross-pollinated plants, those flowering in spring, etc., predominate. Detailed case histories are given for 6 species with very peculiar biological characteristics, and lO further model cases of note are more briefly presented . Although 31 taxa appear lO have become extinct in Bulgaria, the state of those surviving is generally satisfactory, except for a few growing in "hot spot" areas that are being closely monitored.

Holoparasites in primary habitats mostly have a limited distribution. They grow in some sort of equilibrium with the flora of their natural ecosystem, due to particular adaptive habits like limited dispersal and restrained infestability. Their survival depends on a combination of biological and demographic characters of their hosts, their own ecological demands, and environmental conditions that affect their development. Significant change of any of these factors may result in severe reduction of the parasite's population and eventually in its elimination. Such changes can be caused by human interferences, by catastrophes, or by natural succession; they may affect the parasite direCtly, or its host's population, or the whole vegetation. The higher the specificity of the parasite, the higher are the chances of its going extinct. Parasites in secondary habitats, many of which have become cosmopolitan in distribution, are less prone to extinction than those in primary habitats, owing to their weed-like adaptations; only if hostspecific they may become rare or extinct when culture of their particular host crop is abandoned. Parasitic higher plants in both habitat types do not endanger the existence of their host species. Examples from the Cuscutaceae are briefly discussed.

Studies on the regulation of dormancy and germination may be valuable for rare plant population studies. Results of such studies on Spergula arvensis are described. Seeds were buried in the field and exhumed at regular intervals. Germination tests showed clear seasonal changes in dormancy, but test conditions strongly influenced the expression of the dormancy pattem. Seeds germinated during a longer period of the year at 15°C than at 2°C and 30°C. Irradiation with red light, addition of nitrate and desiccation of the seeds prior to the germination test stimulated germination and lengthened the germination periodo The seasonal germination pattem was modelled with a multiple linear regression model which was used to calculate the seasonai changes in the temperature range within which germination can proceed, and the effect of nitrate on this range. Similar calculations were made with models developed for Chenopodium album, Polygonum persicaria and Sisymbrium officinale. Graphs thus produced showed conspicuous differences in the ways in which dormancy in the four species is regulated and expressed. For rare plant population studies, knowledge of the temperature requirements for dormancy breaking and of the effect of temperature, light, nitrate and desiccation on germination may be valuable.

The Mediterranean autumn and winter pose environmental constraints on pollination which result in a low frequency of flowering species as well as pollinators. The various fioraI adaptations by which plants overcome the harsh pollination environment are discussed in the light of new observations and existing litcraturc.

Modem erops in Israel stem from two main sourees: domestieation of loeal wild plants, and aeclimation of erops from other sourees. Seleetion is usually direeted towards higher and better yields, in aeeordanee with elimate, diseases and, more reeently, market demands. PolIination of the targeted erops is stilI negleeted, partly beeause some of the oldest of them are wind pollinated, some are selfers, and some parthenoearpie. Among the older, loeally domestieated erops some continue to be totally dependent on bee pollination, and were probably seleeted without the grower's awareness of the loeal bees' eontribution. However, replacement of the loeal honey-bee Apis mellifera syriaca by the more docile but less adapted A. m. ligustica, and destruetion of the native solitary bees' habitats, ereated areai erisis in loeal erops sue h as almonds, prunes, and many others. An even more serious problem has oeeurred with introdueed plants, whieh were seleeted in their native habitats where they had eo-evolved with their loeal polIinators. The interrelationship between the loeal pollinators' eeology and the erop's eharaeters (blooming period, flower morphology, neetar flow) is, therefore, an important variable to be eonsidered by the erop seleetor and breeder.

The simple flowers of the Umbelliferae, organized in a characteristic inflorescence, appear unspecialized for pollination by a large variety of insect taxa. However, isolating mechanisms exist and protandry is widespread. Dichogamy is often related to petal size, the conspicuousness of the umbel, the presence and number of functionally male flowers, and pollen-grain size. This complex character syndrome is related to the breeding system and to the degree of inbreeding or outbreeding. Although the flowers show few features useful for the taxonomist, a wide array of valuable structures occur in the fruits. Many of these appear to have evolved for mericarp dispersal, both by wind and by animals. Heterocarpic taxa exist in several species, where spiny mericarps appear to serve for the spreading of the species, while non-spiny, tuberculate ones maintain the existing population.

Pollination ecology was studied in Lupinus pilosus with respect to floral colour change. Whitephase banner-spot flowers offered more pollen as reward to foraging pollinators than purplephase flowers did. The changes in colour and rcward were recognized by the pollinators. They preferred pre-change flowers and avoided post-change ones. The change in the banner spot from white to purple was enhanced by pollination. Pollination cxperiments indicate that shortage in resources rather than in pollination was thc limiting factor for fruit set, especially in the upper flower whorls.

Des exemples de dysploldie dans les genres Reichardia et Hypochoeris (Asteraceae, tribu des Cichorieae) sont présentés. Dans Reichardia la dysploidie, tenant compte de la présence et de la distribution des bandes d'hétérochromatine, est descendante (contrairement à ce que l'on avait supposé). Le genre Hypochoeris, qui habite deux aires disjointes et très éloignées, ne montre de dysploldie que dans la région méditerranéenne (x = 3, 4 et 5), alors qu'en Amérique du Sud un seuI nombre de base (x = 4) a été trouvé jusqu 'à présent. Les techniques modemes d'analyse du caryotype perrnettent de déterminer, avec une certitude relativement grande, le sens d'un processus de dysploldie, dfi à l'action simultanée de plusieurs mécanismes cytogénétiques.

There are 7 yellow- or yellowish-green-flowered Fritillaria species in Greece, 4 of which are endemic. F. conica and F. euboeica, endemie to mainland Greece and Evvia, are distinct by their 3-fid styles. F. rhodia is restricted to the island of Rodos. F. pelinaea, here described as a new species from Mt Pelineo on the island of Hios, was previously confused with F. carica and F. bithynica, found both on the East Aegean islands and in Asia Minor. The presence on the island of Samos of F. forbesii is reported, which is a new record for Greece. The main morphological features of the seven species are described and compared with those of related species. The karyotypes of F. rhodia and F. pelinaea are presented for the first time, that of F. bithynica was studied on a newly discovered population. Some differences in karyotype morphology are reported, especially in the marker and SA T chromosomes. The oceurrence of yellowish-green variants in normally purplish-flowered Fritillaria species is discussed

A tabular karyosystematic overview is presented of some Turkish genera in the Liliaceae s.I., including 84 new chromosome number records.

The life cyc1e and morphological features of about 30 Allium species from the Mediterranean region and Central Asia have been studied in their natural populations and under the conditions of introduction. Six mai n biomorphological types have been defincd within the genus, according to the presence of rhizomes or bulbs, and also based on root system structure. Annual cycle and underground organ features are relatcd to the geographical spread of the genus from zones with a moderate climate to arid regions. Life forrn evolution in the genus leads lO an exlreme, ·'geoephemeroid" biomorphological type.

The Mediterranean region is one of the centres of diversity of the genus Allium. Representatives of 4 out of 6 subgenera occur here, reflecting the rather heterogeneous evolutionary history of Allium in the Mediterranean area. Some are representatives of the basic stock of the genus, belonging e.g. to A. subg. Rhizirideum (mainly distributed in continental temperate Eurasia, and with rather unspecialized features) and subg. Amerallium (with the subendemic A. sect. Molium and some other small, derived species groups, adapted by their growth rhythm to the Mediterranean climate with its prolonged dry season). The majority of species belong to A. subg. Allium, whose evolution and radiation can be correlated to the development of vast arid regions, open for colonization, after the shrinking of the Tethys sea in the so-called Old Mediterranean region. The few Mediterranean species of A. subg. Melanocrommyum represent eastem immigrations from the Irano-Turanian province.

In several genera of the Liliaceae, many species are able to generate and tolerate large numbers of heterochromatic segments composed of highly repetitive DNA of AT- andJor GC-nucleotide base composition. These segments are mainly in substitution but also in addition to the euchromatic genome. Their occurrence, number and type is variable between and within species and populations, showing correlation with altitude and/or habitat. A cytological survey of eight altitudinally separated populations of Allium pulchellum (2n = 2x = 16) has shown that there is an increase in the amount of heterochromatin in higher altitude populations. The increase involves ali types of heterochromatic segments present in this species. Ali the evidence indicates that heterochromatin may have an important adaptive role in Allium pulchellum, enabling it to colonizc higher ground.

A concise survey of publications on bryophytes in the European part of the Mediterranean area, plus Turkey and Cyprus, is presented, and recent progress in this field is reported for Portugal, Spain, southern France, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Greece. Albania remains more or less unknown to date. Difficulties affecting the study of bryophytes in the Mediterranean countries are highlighted, and proposals to overcome them are mad

Fem material collected during an excursion in May 1992 has been critically investigated, with emphasis on the asplenioid and cheilanthoid taxa. In Cheilanthes, the existence in Greece of C. guanchica, C. maderensis, C. acrostica, and the hybrids C. xmarchettiana and C. xmalacitensis was confirrned, all five growing together in the same locality, an andesite ridge on the island of Poros, the protection of which is recommended to Greek conservationists. Cosentinia vellea is reported as new for Poros, and Notholaena marantae, as new for the Peloponnesus. A cytological study of Anogramma leptophylla, Asplenium obovatum, A. trichomanes subsp. inexpectans, Cheilanthes guanchica, C. xmarchettiana, and C. xmalacitensis confirmed earlier chromosome data for these taxa, based on non-Greek material.

La bryoflore italienne (818 mousses, 279 hépatiqucs) est plus riche que celle d'autres pays méditerranéens comparables (Espagne, Grèce, Turquie). Elle est ici analysée selon les éléments phytogéographiques qui la composent, pour l'ensemble du territoire, avec exemples à l'appui; puis, de façon limitée aux mousses, de manière comparative pour les 20 régions de I 'ftalie. La distribution des mousses en ftalie, dans ses grandes lignes, permet d'assembler ces régions en cinq groupes floristiquement semblablcs: Ics 6 régions de l'are alpin, trois groupes apenniniqucs (4 dans le nord-ouest, 6 dans le sud-est, 2 de l'intérieur), ainsi que les 2 grandcs i1es.

In the portion of Thrace belonging to Turkey, 12 species of liverworts have so far been collected, 8 of which are reported here for the first time: Lunularia cruciata, Metzgeria furcala, Plagiochila porelloides, Calypogeia arguta, Radula complanala, R. lindbergiana, Porella platyphylla, and Lejeunea cavifolia.

Following some basic facts and considerations on Iberian bryogeography, a review of the prcsent situation of bryological research in Spain is presented, with considerations on its development during the past decade and an outlook on future research priorities in the field.

37 species of microfungi are reported from Crete, of which 36 are new records for the island. Two new species, Ascochyta cretensis and Selenophoma anniae, are described from Foeniculum vulgare. Two new combinations are proposed, Truncatella helichrysi and Phomopsis brunaudiana.

Although c. 1500 Mediterranean Discosia specimens have been studied, the record is stili very incomplete. At present, 19 species (of a world total of 77), and 4 of 6 described sections, are know to occur in 7 Mediterranean countries: 15 in Italy, Il in France, 5 in Bulgaria, 3 in Spain, and 1 each in Greece, Turkey and Algeria. Four of them have been described but recently. Notes on their distribution, ecology, and substrate preferences are presented.

The fluctuation of macrofungal production in mediterranean vegetation types such as juniper scrub and evergreen oak woods has been studied. The fruiting period is concentrated in the autumn months. A generaI criticaI low in summer is due to drought. By comparison, submediterranean vegetation such as chestnut coppices show a second criticaI low in winter, due to harsh temperatures.

Generai aspects of the structure of forest tree mycorrhizae and of the physiological and ecological consequences of the establishment of symbiosis are reviewed. A long-terrn research programme on the use of controlled mycorrhizal infection to improve the quality of the forest seedlings and mediterranean reafforestation is described, and preliminary results are presented: obtention of mycorrhizal isolates suitable for mediterranean forest species; screening of these isolates using physiological criteria; production of mycorrhizal seedlings and characterization of the mycorrhizae; measurement of the physiological effects of mycorrhizal infection in the nursery; definition of the ecological ability of selected isolates; set-up and follow-up of the ecology and ecophysiology of the experimental wood lots.

Recent activities and prospects in the field of assembling and managing data on Italian macrofungi are reviewed. A project for recording and mapping fungi is being promoted by the mycology working group of the Italian Botanical Society, in conjunction with two amateur societies already active in the field (Associazione Micologica "Bresadola" and Unione Micologica Italiana). To date, a chorological survey of the Alto Adige region is nearly completed, and mycological data bank for the Piedmont region exists that is part of a wider system of regional naturalistic data banks and provides for both chorological and ecological surveys. It is planned to extend the coverage of these regional surveys countrywide, starting with the preliminary test mapping of 400 selected species

A database on current research on the biology of threatened species of the Mediterranean Basin and Macaronesia has been created by the OPTIMA Commission for the Conservation of Plant Resources. Information is given on the present status of the database and future guidelines.

Assays of introduction and screening of woody plant species were initiated on Porto Santo in January 1990. The aims of the project were: (l) to find suitable species for afforestation in order to diversify the existing, almost monospecific plantations of Pinus halepensis; (2) to find species that could be used to control soil erosion; (3) to enrich the assortment of omamental species for gardening and landscaping; and (4) to compare the performance of autochthonous species and those already adapted to the conditions of Porto Santo with that of newly introduced exotic woody plants. The preliminary results are presented, potentially usefui species are identified, and problems related to the introduction of exotics, such as the risk of uncontrolled dissemination, are discussed.

In view of the setting up of the Herbarium Mediterraneum collections, the Herbarium Siculum of the Dipartimento di Scienze Botaniche (PAL) has been inventoried. It consists of c. 38,000 mainly historical specimens and inc\udes V. Tineo's and A. Todaro's herbaria, along with collections made by 85 botanists in Sicily and on the surrounding islands, as tabulated here. Samples of characteristic hand-written labels are reproduced. Although 35 specialists can be listed who revised particular genera, a critical review of the whole collection is stili needed. A map of the more frequent1y visited collecting sites is provided.

According to the literature, 45 species of Mediterranean annual grasses were believed to occur in the submediterranean region of Slovenia. A thorough analysis of old data and herbarium material proved that 7 of them: (Apera interrupta. Bromus intermedius. B. scoparius. Gastridium ventricosum. Heleochloa alopecuroides. Phalaris paradoxa. Phleum arenarium) had been reported in error, 4 are probably extinct, 6 were only found as casuals, and a further 6 have not been recorded in the last 50 years. This leaves merely 19 species as confirrned, native or naturalized members of the Siovenian flora.

Through a study of the submediterranean woodland communities of Mt Maljen in C. Serbia, the distribution of six dominant tree species (Carpinus orientalis, Pinus nigra, Quercus frainetto, Q. cerris, Fraxinus ornus, and Ostrya carpinifolia) along gradients for four ecological parameters (light, moisture, soil acidity, and nitrogen concentration) was assessed by means of the method of weighted averaging, and the respective optima and tolerance ranges were obtained for each species. Integer values for the estimated opti ma were compared with Ellenberg' s indicator values for the corresponding species, and such differences as were found are discussed. The results are apt to illustrate the ecological requirements of the various species and therefore show promise as an instrument to better pIan their reintroduction in disturbed and deforested areas

The results of a phytogeographical analysis of the ruderal flora of Belgrade are presented. The Mediterranean element, in a wide sense, and its floristic significance is analysed and is found to account for over \4 of the total ruderal flora.

A phytogeographical characterization of the high-mountain flora of Mt Kopaonik (847 vascular plant species and subspecies attributed to 89 floristic elements, 15 area groups and lO area types) is provided. The analysis shows that specific high-mountain elements (Eurasian mountain, boreal, and arcto-alpine area types) outweigh almost exactly the more widely distributed elements (Eurasian, ho1arctic, and cosmopolitan area types). Balkan endemics and subendemics are in excess of 20 %. Florogenetic links are strongest with the Carpathians, next strongest with the Alps.

The 1360 vascular plant species of which the flora of the Kosovo region consists have been analysed and assigned to 14 main floristic elements. Of these, three are here treated in detail, the Mediterranean element (72 species), the Submediterranean element (129 species), and the Illyric element (51 species), in tum subdivided into more narrowly defined groups

Rochelia (R. disperma) is a new generic record for Bulgaria, having been discovered in the south-west (Struma valIey) where Mediterranean influence is strongest. Rumex maritimus, on the contrary, was found at the northem border, along the Danube river. Schivereckia (S. doerfIeri) is the confirmation of an oId,unconfirmed record from the Centrai Stara Planina range. The Balkan distribution of alI three species is mapped.

The distribution of rare species and the status of their populations in 13 areas declared protected, totalling 257.5 ha, is given. The rarest taxa are Arenaria rigida and Dianthus pontederae subsp. kladovanus.

The phytomass of leaves, branches and trunk of four trees of Pinus peuce was measured (that of leaves and branches., separately for each of three crown segments), and phytomass energy values were established. One tree grew isolated in the zone transitional between conifer belt and subalpine belt, the others were members of a stand in the conifer belt. Comparison of phytomass distribution in age classes supports the assumption that P. peuce is a stable and vigorous component of the upper forest belt of Mt Pirin, and has the potential of expanding its present stands upward into the transitional zone.

Macro- and microelements (N, P, K, Ca, Mg; Fe, Na, S, AI, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Co, Ni, Ba, Sr) in dated 20-year segments of wood and total bark of Pinus heldreichii have been quantitatively analysed in 5 trees c. 90 years old. The distribution pattem of elements in the tree ring segments and the reduction of growth rate with age are discussed.

A Flora of the Tirnfi national park and its neighbouring areas (western Zagori) is in progresso The area is floristically very rich (c. 1750 species of vascular plants) and is a refuge for a dozen species which have here their only presentIy known occurrence in Greece. On the other hand the degree of endernisrn is rernarkably low. having been reduced to four taxa. Individuai problern cases are rnentioned. as well as areas of prospective research.

In Bulgaria, Strandta oak grows naturally only in the Strandza mountains, in the catchment basins of the larger rivers, single or in groups mixed with other tree species. It needs a warm and humid climate. Two different ecotypes - dense-forest oak on deep and moist soils, karst oak on shallow, dry soils - are present. Plantations were studied on 6 experimental plots, si tuated centrally in, peripheral to or outside of the native range of the species. In suitable sites growth of the Strandta oak equals or exceeds that of other oak species (Quercus conferta, Q. cerris). One may conclude that extending the Strandta oak stands to suitable Bulgarian locations within or even outside its present distributional area is appropriate.

Leaf features of Ulmus canescens, U. minor, U. glabra, and their hybrids are described in detail. Ali taxa have asymmetricalleaf bases, either due to the absence of secondary veins in one basai lobe or because of inflexion of the basai leaf margino Leaf shapes in hybrids are more or less intermediate between those of the putative parents, except for the presence of one or more distinct leaflets at the base, on the shorter side of the leaf biade, indicating a tendency of the leaf to become compound.

Zelkova abelicea, a Tertiary relict species, is today restricted to Crete where it is scattered -in ali the main mountain massifs. It is a threatened species of which few old, fertile trees remain, and it is important that it be preserved. Heavy overgrazing now prevents the development of shrubby individuals into trees and jeopardizes regeneration through the seldom germinating seeds. The species has been studied for eight years, both in situ in its natural stands and in cultivation. In-vitro cloning using leaves, twigs, roots, seeds, and seedlings proved difficult due to bacterial infection of nearly ali plants. Just one of a hundred seedlings was not contaminated and was thus suited for vegetati ve propagation. Based on this study, concrete steps of a project for the preservation, multiplication and afforestation of Zelkova are devised.

The cosmopolitan halophyte, Suaeda maritima, has been studied with respect to the physicochemical properties (anion and cation concentrations, electric conductivity, osmotic potential) of its celi sap, during one vegetation peri od (July to October 1992), in its native saline habitat near Melenci (Vojvodina, Serbia). The same parameters were measured, in parallel, for the soil as well. S. maritima is characterized by low osmotic potenti al values (-2.59 MPa lo - 3.25 MPa), for which the importance of ion participation follows lhe pattem: Na > CI > SO, > K. Sugar content ranged from 17.3 mmolll lo 106 mmolli. The root/shoot weight ratio gradually increased during the vegetation peri od, reflecting growing water stress due to ion accumulation in the tissues.

Silene calabra, a species new to science found growing on cliffs of the Ionian slope of Mt Aspromonte (S. Calabria), is described and illustrated. Its relationships with other taxa of the S. italica group are discussed.

On the basis of calyx morphology, petal shape and colour, and seed structure, eight native Greek taxa are characterized and mapped: Silene ammophila subsp. ammophila, E. Crete; S. ammophila subsp. carpathae, Karpathos; S. sartorii, Cyclades, E. Attica and Argolis; S. grisebachii, N. Aegean; S. conica, widespread; S. subconica, mainly N.E. Greece, extending to CentraI Greece and the E. Aegean; S. lydia, very scattered in N.E. and E. CentraI Greece; and S. macrodonta, Karpathos and Rhodes. The first four are Greek endemics. S. grisebachii is a species recentIy raised from varietal status. S. conica is polymorphic and occurs as a widespread variant with glandular-hairy calyces and a northerly eglandular variant.

Dysploidy among perenni al herbaeeous Delphinieae is very uneommon on the basis of the existing data (275 species with known ehromosome number of e. 830 species of the whole tribe, i.e. 33,1 % of the speeies). A part from doubtful records eoming from anomalous or omamental plants, only a few, poorly studied eases of dysploidy are known: 3 Aconitum and 2 Delphinium species. The only well studied example, D. bolosii, should be regarded as a marginai, peripatric phenomenon, lacking great evolutionary future. However, among the annual speeies belonging to the genera Consolida and, specially, Aconitella, the variability by deereasing - and less frequently, inereasing - dysploidy, should be interpreted as an important phenomenon of karyotype rejuvenation taking piace in the main centre of specific diversity of such annual genera.

A detailed cytoembryological study of seed development in the eight Bulgarian Thalictrum taxa showed that embryogeny conforms to the primitive Onagrad type and the endosperm is nucIear. Some advanced features were found in mature seeds, in which respect T. simplex subsp. rhodopaeum, by the formation of a primordial plumule and procambial vessels, appears to represent the highest evolutionary level known for the whole family. These and other data demonstrate that the evolution of cytoembryological features within the genus Thalictrum shows both parallelism and heterobathmy.

Chromosome numbers and karyotypes are given for the three Paeon;a species occurring in Bulgaria and from a total of five wild populations, confirming earlier counts from other areas.

The embryogeny of Paeonia tenuifolia is described. It is essentially similar to that found in other species of the genus. Following division of the zygotic nucleus, a massive coenocytic proembryo is produced. The endosperm is of the nuclear type in its early stage. The new data do not suppor! the contention that in P. _albiflora, P. delavayi, and P. suffruticosa the coenocyte is a suspensor.

Macro- and micromorphological characters of the S. Yugoslav endemie, Bornmuellera dieckii, were analysed. The medifixed, tuberculate trichomes occur in two types, being thickwalled and sessile on leaves but slender and stalked on the stem. Trichome morphology is compared with that in allied genera. The dimensions of leaves and siliculae are much more variable than was originally described, and trichomes are scattered over both leaf surfaces, not only abaxially. In a chemical survey of fatty acids from C14 to C22 (saturatedand unsaturated) were found in seeds, and long-chain n-alkanes (C29 and C31) were identified in the waxes covering stem and leaves.

Germination tests were made on 7 Genisteae species of the genera Chamaespartium (I), Echinospartum (1), and Genista (5), using seed collected in 1991 or 1992 in Portugal. Three different temperature regimes were applied: (1) daily altemation of 10°C and 20°C, linked with a 12 hour photoperiod; (2) same conditions, except that the temperature altemated between 20°C and 30°C; (3) at first regime (I) during 2 days, subsequently followed by regime (2). For Echinospartum, regime (2) proved to be most favourable; Chamaespartium germinated best under regime (I); and the Genista species either preferred regime (3) or did equally well under regime (I) and (3)

Common licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) is a perennial herbaceous medicinal plant. It is uncommon in Bulgaria, where only 4 populations are known. One of these, near the village of Belcov near Ruse, has l1een investigated in detail. It stocks on a terrace of the river Jantra, in the c1imatic lowland zone of the N. Bulgarian subregion with a temperate continental climate, on well aerated, c1ayey calcareous chernozem soil with slight to moderate sand content, with limited moisture and alkaiinity. To preserve this rare plant from extinction, it is recommended that the Ruse population be tended in order to improve its poor present regeneration, and that plantations be established to enable use for pharmaceutic industriai purposes.

Euphorbia subsect. Galarrhaei includes about 200 species found in Eurasia. Previous karyological studies in the subsection report three basic numbers, x = 5, 6, 7 (most common), 8, and lO. There is a great diversity of chromosome numbers, since both dysploidy and polyploidy have played an important role in the evolution of the subsection. Neopolyploidy (2n = 14 ~ 28) and dysploidy (2n = 14 ~ 12) are here reported for populations of the E. flavicoma aggregate at the northem limit of its distribution area. Chromosomal changes show IittIe conco mitant morphological differentiation within the aggregate and are interpreted as being of recent date.

The epidermis of 7 c10sely related and often misinterpreted species of Euphorbia subsect. Galarrhaei (E. squamigera, E. clementei, E. margalidiana. E. paniculata, E. bivonae. E. melitensis, and E. nereidum) were investigated under the light microscope and scanning electron microscope. Epidermis and stornata cell dirnensions, epidermis and stornata cell density, stornata! type, antic1inal wall thickening, papilla type, and trichorne length and omarnentation were studied. High intraspecific variability was observed in some characters. Trichorne omamentation supports the union of E. atlantis var. villosa and E. clementei var. villifolia in a single taxon: E. clementei subsp. villosa.

Thymelaea bulgarica, a new species from S. Bulgaria, is described. Morphological, chorological, anatomical, and karyological data for the two Bulgarian species, T. bulgarica and T. passerina, are given. A diagnostic key for these two species and the related T. mesopotamica and T. gussonei is presented. T. mesopotamica is recorded as new for the flora of Azerbaijan.

A comparative anatomical study of leaves, stems and roots of three archaic umbel taxa found in S. Italy is presented: Petagnaea gussonei, representing a monospecific genus endemie to Sicily; Sanicula europaea, widespread in Europe; and Lereschia thomasii, again of a monospeeific genus, endemie to Calabria They have many traits in common, mostly reflecting their sciadophilous habit, but they also show significant structural differences that reflect upon their ecological versatility. Of the three, Petagnaea appears to be the least adaptable, which makes it particularly fragile and needful of protection.

Bumb1e-bees (Bombus species) are the most effective and thus the main pollinators of Gentiana lutea, G. punctata and G. asclepiadea. Gentiana cruciata is pollinated by bumble-bees and Halictus bees. The flower constancy of the pollinators is high.

The diploid chromosome number 2_n_ = 2_x_ = 20 is reported for two Balkan endemics (Alkanna primuliflora and A. stribrnyi) and two Bulgarian endemics (A. stojanovii and A. jordanovii), and their characteristic karyotypes are illustrated.

In a preliminary chemotaxonomic study, by thin-Iayer chromatography, samples of Lamiaceae (39 species of 25 genera), Scrophulariaceae (5 species of Linaria and 4 of Veronica) and Rubiaceae (15 species of Galium) were screened for iridoids, flavonids and triterpenoids. The usefulness of these substances as taxonomic markers is discussed in the Iight of congruence between the new results and the accepted c1assification.

The contradictory data on the distribution of Hyssopus taxa in Bulgaria are reviewed. H. officinalis subsp. pilifer is the wild plant growing in stony places with a temperate-continental climate. lts occurrence in two regions (Znepole and Mt Vitosa) is confirmed, and its alleged presence in the Predbalkan, W. Stara planina, and Mt Rila is discussed. The wild plants contain camphor, but not as much pinocamphone as the cultivated ones (H. officinalis subsp. officinalis), which is why the native populations cannot be used for perfumery purposes.

The hybrid Verbascum xangulosum (V. speciosum x V. nigrum), previously known but omitted from recent literature, and a new hybrid V. xdecalvans nothosubsp. lotrulense (V. glabratum subsp. brandzae x V. nigrum) are reported from the territory of Rumania.

Three populations of Verbascum phoeniceum, growing at the same a!titude and under similar climatic conditions but on different mother rock (serpentine, limestone, andesite) were compared for possible morphological and anatomical differences. Significant divergence in severa! features was found. The plants growing on serpentine, in particular, differ by smaller dimensions of ali their parts, and in several anatomical features of their stems and leaves.

The province-wise distribution of Pseudolysimachion species in Italy is reviewed. based on the study of herbarium materia. Diagnostic features are mentioned. P. incanum and P. orchideum are new records for the ltalian flora.

A comparative anatomical study of the leaves of Jancaea heldreichii, Ramonda nathaliae, Ramonda serbica. and Haberlea rhodopensis reveals that their adaptive features are specific structural responses to environmental constraints of their respective habitats.

Three specimens from near the S.W. Bulgarian border, forrnerIy misidentified as "Helichrysum arenarium", belong to H. plicatum which had not so far been recorded from Bulgaria.

Epidennal (stornata dimension and density) imd stem anatomical features (proportions of the various constituent tissues) have been studied for three Bulgarian representatives of Achillea sect. Filipendulinae: A. clypeolata, A. coarctata and A. thracica. Composition in flavonoid compounds of the leaf exudate was analysed for the same species, plus A. chrysocoma of A. sect. Santolinoideae. The results testify of various degrees of xeromorphic adaptation of the taxa studi ed.

Data on germinative ability and speed of germination in 13 European and 3 S.W. Asian (Armenian) populations of 10 taxa of Artemisia are presented. Germination rates are general1y high, the germinative period is short and cypselas maintain their germinative power for a long period of time.

As a workbench study related to a revision of the genus Arctium (meanwhile published), a c1adistic analysis of the genera Arctium and Cousinia p.p. is presented. The data matrix inc1udes 30 (micro-)morphological characters for 26 species. Cousinia is shown to be paraphyletic, with the paraphyletic C. subg. Cynaroides closely related to Arctium S.str., which is itself monophyletic.

The distribution of Leuzea conifera, a W. Mediterranean l'elict taxon, is re-examined and mapped for Liguria and Piedmont on the basis of herbarium specimens, field notes, literature records and an unpublished manuscript. Ecology and phytosociological appurtenance of the species, a characteristic ofthe Ononido-Rosmarinetea, are discussed.

The chorology and some aspeets of the ecology of Centaurea immanuelis-loewii, a rare endemic of S.W. Bulgaria and N.E. Greeee, are discussed. New data on structure and density of its populations and on the surrounding vegetation are presented.

Hyoseris taurina is a chasmophyte occurring on the siliceous coastal cliffs of S.W. Sardinia, N.E. Sicily, S. Calabria, the Aeolian islands, N.W. Tunisia, and the island of La Galite. It is a typical S. Tyrrhenian element, a remnant of the Tertiary flora, morphologically well separated from the other Hyoseris species. Phytosociologically it characterizes a new association of the Crithmo-Limonietea, the Hyoseridetum taurinae, with several vicarious, floristically and phytogeographically distinct subassociations.

A comparative study of two subspecies of Sonchus asper growing in Bulgaria (subsp. asper and subsp. glaucescens) was performed. In both, the anthers are predominantly tetrasporangiate; meiosis in the microspore mother ceUs runs normaUy, and the simultaneously formed microspore tetrads are tetrahedral; the mature poUen is 3-ceUed; the embryo sac formation is of the Polygonum type; the embryo develops according to the Asterad type; and the endosperm is initially nucIear. S. asper proves to be a strongly proterandrous and sexuaUy reproducing species. Its two subspecies here studied can be distinguished, not only by their morphology but by embryological features as weU.

Crepisfraasii var.fraasii and var. mungieri as well as C. reuteriana have been studied karyologically. The karyotype rnorphology of C. fraasii var. fraasii and C. reuteriana is virtually constant, that of C. fraasii var. mungieri shows a slight inter-populational variation. There is no karyotype difference of note between the two varieties of C. fraasii. Idiograms for each taxon are shown.

Karyotypes are given for the 3 Tulipa taxa that occur in European Turkey: T. sylvestris subsp. australis (2_n_ = 24, 26), T. orphanidea s.1. - including T. hageri, T. hellespontica, and T. thraciea - (2_n_ = 36, 48), and T. undulatifolia (2_n_ = 36)

A new species of Tulipa, re1ated to and previously confused with T. scardica, is described from Serbia (Yugoslavia). It is confined to serpentine soils and flowers in ApriI to May.

As part of a complete morphological study of Ornithogalum narbonense and O. nutans, based on live and dry Bulgarian material, their anatomical leaf structure was described and illustrated for the first time. The leaves are epistomatic in both. They differ in the dimensions and number of epidermal cells and stornata, in thickness and structure of the epidermal cutic1e, and most definitely in the shape and arrangement of mesophyll cells and in the structure of the leaf biade edge.

Orithogalum is currently represented in European Turkey by 13 species. Chromosome numbers, counted on all, are tabulated, and micrographs of somatic metaphase plates are provided.

A new Bellevalia species, growing on the cliffs of Cap Bon (Tunisia), is described and illustrated. Its chromosome number (2_n_ = 16), eco10gy and taxonomic relationships are discussed.

A study was made on the structural organization of the outer spermoderm surface in 18 Allium species of the Bulgarian flora. The spermoderm types in the different specific and supraspecific categories were established, and their taxonomic significance is discussed.

Allium karistanum, a rare new endemie species only known from the rocky eoast of southern Evvia, is described and illustrated. Its karyology, Ieaf anatomy, taxonomie position, and relationships with other speeies belonging to the A. cupanii group are discussed

A review of steroidal sapogenins (SGs) found in Asparagus and Ruscus species is presented. Intergeneric differences in SG content and structure can be observed. For Asparagus monohydroxy-SGs are characteristic, whereas in Ruscus di- and trihydroxy-SGs are found. Some published data, which appear to contradict this generai piclure, called for a phytochemical reinvestigation of A. verticillatus, A. maritimus, and R. ponticus. The results do noI confirm the presence of (dihydroxy-SG) ruscogenin in Asparagus or of (monohydroxy-SG) diosgenin in Ruscus, thus supporting the assumption that the two genera have no SGs in common.

The isoenzyme structure of the Festuca nigrescens populations of the Boatin National Reserve was examined for esterase (11 isoforrns), peroxidase (8 isoforms), and acid phosphatase (lO isoforrns), and the results compared with average values from 6 other Bulgarian populations, previously studied. In spite of its vicinity to a copper refinery, the Boatin population has an isoenzyme structure that is stp.ble over time and does not differ significantly from the B ulgarian average.

A new diploid species, Bromus parilicus, is recognized within the B. riparius aggregate and compared to B. cappadocicus (6x), B. lacmonicus (8x), and B. riparius (10x). The decaploid B. fibrosus var. :orbelicus_ is raised to specific rank. B. transsilvanicus probably al so belongs to the B. riparius aggregate. 2n = 14 and 2n = 70, counted on plants from N.E. Anatolia, are new chromosome numbers for B. tomentellus subsp. tomentellus and subsp. woronovii, respectively. The first 2_x_ count (2_n_ = 14) for a member of the B. erectus aggregate is reported for B. moellendorffianus, which is newly recorded for Siovenia.

A new diploid species, Bromus parilicus, is recognized within the B. riparius aggregate and compared to B. cappadocicus (6_x_), B. lacmonicus (8_x_), and B. riparius (10_x_). The decaploid B. fibrosus var. orbelicus is raised to specific rank. B. transsilvanicus probably al so belongs to the B. riparius- aggregate. 2_n = 14 and 2_n_ = 70, counted on plants from N.E. Anatolia, are new chromosome numbers for B. tomentellus subsp. tomentellus and subsp. woronovii, respectively. The first 2_x_ count (2_n_ = 14) for a member of the B. erectus aggregate is reported for B. moellendorffianus, which is newly recorded for Siovenia.

Recent field investigations in the F.Y.R. Makedonija have led to the recognition of four Arum taxa within that country: A. alpinum, A. orientale subsp. orientale, A. maculatum, and A. italicum subsp. italicum. They differ principaIly in shape of tuber, shape of spathe and spadix, ratio of peduncle to petiole length, and chromosome number. Arum alpinum is mostly found in the western part of the country, while A. orientale is more frequent in its eastern part where it reaches the western limit of its distribution; Arum maculatum is less widespread in the country than was earlier believed, having usually been cited by confusion with A. alpinum; A. italicum, a Mediterranean species, is confined to the southern part of the country and to the river valleys with a Mediterranean climatic regime.

19 populations of 3 species of Carex sect. Phaestoglochin and 9 populations of C. echinata of C. sect. Stellulatae were studied karyologically and morphologically. The following chromosome numbers were found: 2_n_ = 58 in C. divulsa subsp. divulsa and subsp. leersii, C. muricata subsp. lamprocarpa, C. spicata, and C. echinata; 2_n_ = 56, 55 in C. muricata subsp. muricata. A change in the taxonomic scheme of C. sect. Phaestoglochin is proposed.

A check-list of Sicilian Orchids, based on literature records and herbarium material, is presented, using a fully updated nomenclature and taxonomy. Two lists include ali taxa (90 species and subspecies) and nothospecies (59) known to occur in Sicily and on the adjacent small islands. Ophrys (34 non-hybrid taxa) and Orchis (21) are the largest genera. For each taxon the main synonymy and the distribution within Sicily (in terrns of provinces, mountain massifs and small islands) are given; the latter being documented by numerical references to the relevant sources. CriticaI and doubtfully present taxa, and those that have been reported in error, are listed separately.

A list of ali species of dematiaceous hyphomycetes found in the litter of five plots of Mediterranean evergreen forest in Tuscany is presented and commented. Relative frequencies by plots, and in three distinct layers of the litter, are given for ali species. Species numbers as well as inter-plot floristic affinities are tabulated.

A set of enzymes involved in various metabolic pathways in Botrytis cinerea and Septoria nodorum, two important necrotrophic plant pathogens, was studied cytochemically. Mycelia growing in ovaries of Lilium regale and seeds of Triticum aestivum, respectively, showed high activity of some hydrolases (a-esterase, AS-D-esterase, acid phosphatase, ~-glucosidase, a-galactosidase), 10caIized in cytoplasmic granules. Acid phosphatase was observed outside of the hyphae of S. nodorum, and A TPase within. Hydrolytic enzymes probably contribute both to the penetration of host cells and the utilization of their nutrient substances. The citric acid cycle and glycolysis occur in both fungi, as revealed by the presence of the dehydrogenases studied. S. nodorum has 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, involved in the pentose phosphate pathway, whereas B. cinerea is characterized by the presence of peroxidase and polyphenoloxidase; the latter, which is probably related to cross-linking of matrix polymers in the celi wall, is also found in senescent hyphae of S. nodorum.

18 species of pyrenomycetous fungi, both xylophilous and foliicolous, are reported as growing on birch (Betula pendula) in Bulgaria, 10 of which are narrow specialists of this particular substrate. These 10, half of which are new records for S.E. Europe, are described and ilIustrated.

The genus Trochila and five species. all belonging to the Helotiales (Discomycetes), are reported as new for Bulgaria: Crocicreas complicatum, Hymenoscyphus salicellus, Mollisia ventosa, Pyrenopeziza compressula, and Trochila craterium. Descriptions and iIIustrations are provided for all treated taxa.

Microbotryum violaceo-verrucosum is reported as new to Spain (on Silene nevadensis), Serbia (on S. bupleuroides), Macedonia (on S. gallinyi), Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey (on S. italica). S. bupleuroides, S. gallinyi and S. nevadensis are new hosts for this smut fungus.

The present paper is the first in a series that will outline the known distribution of Aphyllophorales in Italy. The family Hericiaceae is treated, with 5 species of the 3 genera Creolophus, Hericium, and Mucronella.

The cultural and morphological characteristics of two very similar European Armillaria species, A. cepistipes and A. gallica, are described, and their distribution in Italy is discussed.

A preliminary list of 23 fungal species believed to be threatened in Italy (some illustrated by photographs) is presented.

A literature-based checklist is presented, enumerating the 60 taxa of macromycetes (58 basidiomycetes, 2 ascomycetes) so far known to occur in Mediterranean and submediterranean plant communities in Bulgaria, i.e. in stands of Castanea sativa, Juniperus excelsa, _Paliurus spina-_christi, Phillyrea latifolia, Pinus heldreichii, Platanus orientalis, and Quercus pubescens with J. oxycedrus.

103 species and infraspecific taxa of lichens are reported as new to the island, whose presently known lichen flora consists of 155 such taxa.

Ten years after a first numerical overview of the bryological exploration of Sicily, an update has been prepared, taking into account the considerable quantity of new data published in the meantime. The new inventory is presented in the form of two graphs, showing the numbers of bryophyte taxa known from each of the administrative provinces, mai n mountain massifs and (groups of) small islands of the Sicilian territory. Percent increase of taxon numbers is tabulated for each of these geographical units. The total number of bryophyte taxa so far known from Sicily has increased by 66, ali of which are listed and is now 650: 523 mosses (+48) and 127 Iiverworts (+18). The Peloritani, Madonie and Etna mountains remain the best explored areas, but the bryofloristic knowledge of some of the provinces (Palermo, Trapani, Syracuse) and minor islands (Ustica, Stagnone, Pantelleria) has considerably improved.

The bryophyte vegetation carpeting the traditional macadam alleys of IO historical gardens in the city of Palermo, and its variation as a function of different microenvironments, have been analysed. Four types of communities can be distinguished, ali pertaining to the class Barbuletea unguiculatae. The first, characterized by Scorpiurium circinatum, occurs on areas relatively undisturbed by trampling, on more heavily trampled, moister ground a community with Riccia crystallina and Sphaerocarpos michelii predominates. Two closely related communities occur where a soil layer covers the macadam: one in more sunny situations where substratum is frequently disturbed and heterogeneous, in which Didymodon vinealis, D. luridus, and Aloina rigida prevail; the other on more compact, drier soil, where the dominant species is Riccia lamellosa. The bryophyte flora of these man-made habitat is of considerable interest owing to the presence of some rare species, and warrants conservational efforts to be made in view of its preservation.

Ten orophilous taxa found in high mountain localities on Mt Etna are discussed. Among them, Brachythecium collinum, Desmatodon latifolius, Grimmia donniana. and Dicranoweisia crispula are new records for Sicily; other taxa are rare on the island, or new for Mt Etna. The phytogeographical interest of the Sicilian orophilous mosses is discussed.

About 108 species or 17 % of the Bulgarian bryoflora (85 mosses and 23 Iiverworts) have a Mediterranean-Atlantic character,. The Iiverworts mostly belong to the Codoniaceae and Ricciaceae, the mosses mainly to the Pottiaceae. These bryophytes occur pIincipaIIy in the southem parts of the country, in SE BulgaIia (Strandza mountain), along the BIack Sea coast, on Mts Rila and Vitosa, and also in lowland areas in the northem parts, e.g. near Vidin, Lom and Ruse.

On the small, bryologically almost unexplored volcanic island of Ustica, off the northem coast of Sicily in the Thyrrenian Sea, 51 species and infraspecific taxa of bryophytes have been collected: lO liverworts and 41 mosses, of which a list is presented. In their majority they can be ascribed to the temperate element. Riccia cavernosa and Bryum dunense are the most interesting of these findings.